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Ada Lovelace




Ada Lovelace

Ada King, Countess of Lovelace, 1840
BornThe Hon. Augusta Ada Byron
10 December 1815
London, England
Died27 November 1852 (aged 36)
Marylebone, London, England
Resting placeChurch of St. Mary Magdalene,Hucknall, Nottingham
NationalityBritish
Influenced byAugustus De Morgan
TitleCountess of Lovelace
Spouse(s)William King-Noel, 1st Earl of Lovelace
Children
Parents
Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace (10 December 1815 – 27 November 1852), born Augusta Ada Byron and now commonly known as Ada Lovelace, was an English mathematician and writer chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's early mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. Her notes on the engine include what is recognised as the first algorithm intended to be processed by a machine. Because of this, she is often considered the world's first computerprogrammer.[1][2][3]
Ada was the only legitimate child of the poet Lord Byron (with Anne Isabella Byron). She had no relationship with her father, who separated from her mother just a month after Ada was born, and four months later he left England forever and died in Greece in 1823 when she was eight. As a young adult, she took an interest in mathematics, and in particular Babbage's work on the analytical engine. Between 1842 and 1843, she translated an article by Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea on the engine, which she supplemented with a set of notes of her own. These notes contain what is considered the first computer program — that is, an algorithm encoded for processing by a machine. Ada's notes are important in the early history of computers. She also foresaw the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching while others, including Babbage himself, focused only on these capabilities.[4]

Contents

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Biography

Childhood

Ada was born Augusta Ada Byron on 10 December 1815, the child of the poet George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, and his wife, Anne Isabella "Annabella" Milbanke, Baroness Byron.[5] Byron, and many of those who knew Byron, expected that the baby would be "the glorious boy", and there was some disappointment at the contrary news.[6] She was named after Byron's half-sister, Augusta Leigh, and was called "Ada" by Byron himself.[7]
Ada, aged four
On 16 January 1816, Annabella, at Byron's behest, left for her parents' home at Kirkby Mallory taking one-month-old Ada with her.[6] Although English law gave fathers full custody of their children in cases of separation, Byron made no attempt to claim his parental rights [8]but did request that his sister keep him informed of Ada’s welfare.[9] On 21 April, Byron signed the Deed of Separation, although very reluctantly, and left England for good a few days later.[10] An acrimonious divorce followed, with allegations of immoral behaviour against Byron [11] that Annabella would continue to make throughout her life. This would make Ada famous in Victorian society. Byron did not have a relationship with his daughter; he died in 1824, when she was eight. Her mother was the only significant parental figure in her life.[12] Ada would not even be able to view any portrait of her father until her twentieth birthday.[13] Her mother became Baroness Wentworth in her own right in 1856.
Annabella did not have a close relationship with the young Ada and would often leave her in the care of her grandmother Judith Milbanke, who doted on her. However, due to the social attitudes of the time – which favoured the husband in any separation, with the welfare of any child acting as mitigation – Annabella had to present herself as a loving mother to the rest of society. This included writing anxious letters to Judith about Ada’s welfare, with a cover note saying to retain the letters in case she had to use them to show maternal concern.[14] In one letter to Judith, she referred to Ada as “it”: “I talk to it for your satisfaction, not my own, and shall be very glad when you have it under your own.” [15] In her teenaged years, Ada was watched by several close friends of her mother for any signs of moral deviation; Ada dubbed them “the Furies” and would later complain that they had exaggerated and invented stories about her.[16]
Ada, aged seventeen, 1832
Ada was often ill, dating from her early childhood. At the age of eight, she experienced headaches that obscured her vision.[7] In June 1829, she was paralysed after a bout of themeasles. She was subjected to continuous bed rest for nearly a year, which may have extended her period of disability. By 1831 she was able to walk with crutches.
Throughout her illnesses, she continued her education.[17] Her mother's obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused Lord Byron was one of the reasons that she was taught mathematics from an early age. Ada was privately schooled in mathematics and science by William Frend, William King and Mary Somerville.[18] One of her later tutors was the noted mathematician and logician Augustus De Morgan. From 1832, when she was seventeen, her remarkable mathematical abilities began to emerge,[12] and her interest in mathematics dominated the majority of her adult life. In a letter to Lady Byron, De Morgan suggested that her daughter's skill in mathematics could lead her to become "an original mathematical investigator, perhaps of first-rate eminence".[19]
In early 1833, Ada had an affair with a tutor and, after being caught, tried to elope with him. The tutor’s relatives recognised her and contacted her mother; the incident was covered up by Annabella and her friends to prevent a public scandal.[20]
Ada never met her younger half-sister, Allegra Byron, daughter of Lord Byron and Claire Clairmont, who died in 1822 at the age of five. She did, however, have some contact with Elizabeth Medora Leigh, the daughter of Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh. Augusta Leigh purposely avoided Ada as much as possible when she was introduced at Court.[21]

Adult years

Ada developed a strong relationship with Mary Somerville, noted researcher and scientific author of the 19th century, who introduced her to Charles Babbage on 5 June 1833. She had a strong respect and affection for Somerville [22] and the two of them would correspond for many years. Other acquaintances were Andrew Crosse, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone, Charles Dickens andMichael Faraday.
Throughout her life, Ada was strongly interested in scientific developments and fads of the day, including phrenology [23] andmesmerism.[24] Even after her famous work with Babbage, Ada continued to work on other projects. In 1844, she would comment to a friend Woronzow Greig about her desire to create a mathematical model for how the brain gives rise to thoughts and nerves to feelings (“a calculus of the nervous system”),[25] though she would never achieve this: in part, this was due to a long-running preoccupation, inherited from her mother, about her 'potential' madness. As part of her research into this project, she visited electrical engineer Andrew Crosse in 1844 to learn how to carry out electrical experiments.[26] In the same year, she wrote review of a paper by Baron Karl von Reichenbach, ‘’Researches on Magnetism’’, but this was not published and does not appear to have progressed past the first draft.[27] In 1851, the last year before her cancer struck, she wrote to her mother mentioning “certain productions” she was working on regarding the relation of maths and music.[28]
By 1834, Ada was a regular at Court and started attending various events. She danced often and was able to charm many people and was described by most people as being dainty. However, John Hobhouse, Lord Byron's friend, was the exception and he described her as "a large, coarse-skinned young woman but with something of my friend's features, particularly the mouth".[29] This description followed their meeting on 24 February 1834 in which Ada made it clear to Hobhouse that she did not like him, probably due to the influence of her mother, which led her to dislike all of her father's friends. This first impression was not to last, and they later became friends.[30]
Portrait by Margaret Sarah Carpenter
On 8 July 1835 she married William King, 8th Baron King, becoming Baroness King.[31] Their residence was a large estate at Ockham Park, in Ockham, Surrey, along with another estate on Loch Torridon and a home in London. They spent their honeymoon at Worthy Manor in Ashley Combe near Porlock Weir, Somerset. The Manor had been built as a hunting lodge in 1799 and was improved by King in preparation for their honeymoon. It later became their summer retreat and was further improved during this time. The house was built on a small plateau in woodland overlooking the Bristol Channel and surrounded by terraced gardens in the Italian style.
They had three children; Byron born 12 May 1836, Anne Isabella (called Annabella, later Lady Anne Blunt) born 22 September 1837 and Ralph Gordon born 2 July 1839. Immediately after the birth of Annabella, Lady King experienced "a tedious and suffering illness, which took months to cure".[30] In 1838, her husband was created Earl of Lovelace. Thus, she was styled "The Right Honourable the Countess of Lovelace" for most of her married life. In 1843-4, William Benjamin Carpenter was assigned by Anabella to teach Ada’s children, as well as to act as a ‘moral’ instructor for Ada.[32] He quickly fell for her and encouraged her to express any frustrated ‘affections’, claiming that his marriage would mean he’d never act in an “unbecoming” manner; when it became clear that Carpenter was trying to start an affair, Ada cut it off.[33]
In 1841, Ada and Medora Leigh (daughter of Lord Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh) were told by the former's mother that Byron, her father, was also Medora's father.[34] On 27 February 1841, Ada wrote to her mother: "I am not in the least astonished. In fact you merely confirm what I have for years and years felt scarcely a doubt about, but should have considered it most improper in me to hint to you that I in any way suspected".[35] Ada did not blame the incestuous relationship on Byron, but instead blamed Augusta Leigh: "I fearshe is more inherently wicked than he ever was".[36] This did not prevent Ada's mother from attempting to destroy her daughter's image of her father, but instead drove her to attack Byron's image with greater intensity.[37]
In the 1840s, Ada would flirt with scandals: first from a relaxed relationship with men who weren’t her husband, which led to rumours of affairs;[38] and second her love of gambling, which led to her forming a syndicate with her male friends and an ambitious attempt in 1851 to create a mathematical model for successful large bets. This went disastrously wrong, leaving her thousands of pounds in debt and being blackmailed by one of the syndicate, forcing her to admit her mess to her husband.[39] Ada also had a shadowy, possibly illicit relationship with Andrew Crosse’s son John from 1844 onwards. Few hard facts are known because Crosse destroyed most of their correspondence after her death as part of a legal agreement; however, it was strong enough that she bequeathed him the only heirlooms her father had personally left to her.[40] During her final illness, Ada would panic at the idea of John Crosse being kept from visiting her.[41]

Charles Babbage

Ada Lovelace met and corresponded with Charles Babbage on many occasions, including socially and in relation to Babbage's Difference Engine and Analytical Engine. They first met through their mutual friend Mary Somerville; Ada became fascinated with his Difference Engine and used her relationship with Somerville to visit him as often as she could. In later years, she became acquainted with Babbage’s Italian friend Fortunato Prandi, an associate of revolutionaries.
Babbage was impressed by Ada's intellect and writing skills. He called her "The Enchantress of Numbers". In 1843 he wrote of her:
Forget this world and all its troubles and if
possible its multitudinous Charlatans – every thing
in short but the Enchantress of Numbers.[42]
During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Ada translated Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea's memoir on Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine. With the article, she appended a set of notes.[43] Explaining the Analytical Engine’s function was a difficult task, as even other scientists did not really grasp the concept and the British establishment was uninterested in it.[44] Ada’s notes had to even explain how the Engine differed from the original Difference Engine.[45] The notes are longer than the memoir itself and include (Section G), in complete detail, a method for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers with the Engine, which would have run correctly had the Analytical Engine been built (the first complete Babbage Engine was completed in London in 2002[46]). Based on this work, Ada is now widely credited with being the first computer programmer[1] and her method is recognised as the world's first computer program.[47] Her work was well received at the time: Michael Faraday would describe himself as a fan of her writing.[48]
Babbage and Ada had a minor falling out when the papers were published, when he tried to leave his own statement (a criticism of the government’s treatment of his Engine) as an unsigned preface – which would imply she’d written that too. When ‘’Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs’’ ruled that the statement should be signed, Babbage wrote to Ada asking her to withdraw the paper. This was the first she knew he was leaving it unsigned and she wrote back refusing to withdraw the paper. Historian Benjamin Woolley has theorised that “his actions suggested he had so enthusiastically sought Ada’s involvement, and so happily indulged her... because of her ‘celebrated name’”.[49]
Their friendship would recover after this and they continued to correspond. In August 12, 1851, when she was dying of cancer, Ada wrote to him asking him to be her executor, though this letter did not give him the necessary legal authority.[48]
Part of the terrace at Worthy Manor was known as "Philosopher's Walk", as it was there that Ada and Babbage were reputed to have walked discussing mathematical principles.

Death

Ada Lovelace died at the age of thirty-six, on 27 November 1852,[50] from uterine cancer probably exacerbated by bloodletting by her physicians.[51] The illness lasted several months, in which time Annabella would take command over who Ada saw, and excluded all of her friends and confidants. Under her mother’s influence, she had a religious transformation (after previously being a materialist) [52]and was coaxed into repenting of her previous conduct and making Annabella her executor.[53] Contact was lost with her husband after she confessed something to him on 30 August, causing him to abandon her bedside; what she told him is not known but has been theorised as a confession of adultery.[54]
She was buried, at her request, next to her father at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottingham.

First computer program

An illustration inspired by the A. E. Chalon portrait created for the Ada Initiative, which supports open technology and women.
In 1842 Charles Babbage was invited to give a seminar at the University of Turin about his analytical engine. Luigi Menabrea, a young Italian engineer, and future Prime Minister of Italy, wrote up Babbage's lecture in French, and this transcript was subsequently published in the Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève in October 1842.
Babbage asked Ada to translate Menabrea's paper into English, subsequently requesting that she augment the notes she had added to the translation. Ada spent most of a year doing this. These notes, which are more extensive than Menabrea's paper, were then published in The Ladies' Diary and Taylor's Scientific Memoirs under the initialism "AAL".
In 1953, over one hundred years after her death, Ada's notes on Babbage's Analytical Engine were republished. The engine has now been recognised as an early model for a computer and Ada's notes as a description of a computer and software.[55]
Ada's notes were labelled alphabetically from A to G. In note G, she describes an algorithmfor the analytical engine to compute Bernoulli numbers. It is considered the first algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer, and for this reason Ada is often cited as the first computer programmer.[56] However the engine was not completed during Lovelace's lifetime.

Conceptual leap

In her notes, Lovelace emphasized the difference between the Analytical Engine and previous calculating machines, particularly its ability to be programmed to solve problems of any complexity.[57] Lovelace realised that the potential of the device extended far beyond mere number crunching. She wrote:
[The Analytical Engine] might act upon other things besides number, were objects found whose mutual fundamental relations could be expressed by those of the abstract science of operations, and which should be also susceptible of adaptations to the action of the operating notation and mechanism of the engine...
Supposing, for instance, that the fundamental relations of pitched sounds in the science of harmony and of musical composition were susceptible of such expression and adaptations, the engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent.[58]
This analysis was a conceptual leap from previous ideas about the capabilities of computing devices, and foreshadowed the capabilities and implications of the modern computer. This insight is seen as significant by writers such as Betty Toole and Benjamin Woolley, as well as programmer John Graham-Cumming, whose project Plan 28 has the aim of constructing the first complete Analytical Engine.[59][60][61]

Controversy over extent of contributions

Though Ada Lovelace is often referred to as the first computer programmer, there is disagreement over the extent of her contributions, and whether she deserves to have been called a programmer. Allan G. Bromley, in the 1990 essay "Difference and Analytical Engines", wrote, "All but one of the programs cited in her notes had been prepared by Babbage from three to seven years earlier. The exception was prepared by Babbage for her, although she did detect a "bug" in it. Not only is there no evidence that Ada ever prepared a program for the Analytical Engine but her correspondence with Babbage shows that she did not have the knowledge to do so."[62] Curator and author Doron Swade, in his 2001 book The Difference Engine, wrote, "The first algorithms or stepwise operations leading to a solution—what we would now recognise as a 'program', though the word was not used by her or by Babbage—were certainly published under her name. But the work had been completed by Babbage much earlier."[63]
Blue plaque to Lovelace in St. James's Square, London
Historian Bruce Collier went further in his 1990 book The Little Engine That Could've, calling Ada not only irrelevant, but delusional:
It would be only a slight exaggeration to say that Babbage wrote the 'Notes' to Menabrea's paper, but for reasons of his own encouraged the illusion in the minds of Ada and the public that they were authored by her. It is no exaggeration to say that she was a manic depressive with the most amazing delusions about her own talents, and a rather shallow understanding of both Charles Babbage and the Analytical Engine... To me, [correspondence between Ada and Babbage] seems to make obvious once again that Ada was as mad as a hatter, and contributed little more to the 'Notes' than trouble.[64]
Writer Benjamin Woolley would say that while Ada's mathematical abilities have been contested,[65] she can claim "some contribution": "Note A, the first she wrote and the one over which Babbage had the least influence, contains a sophisticated analysis of the idea and implications of mechanical computation."[66] And that this discussion of the implications of Babbage's invention was the most important aspect of her work. According to Woolley, her notes were "detailed and thorough [a]nd still... metaphysical, meaningfully so"; they were able to explain how the machine worked and "[rose] above the technical minutiae of Babbage's extraordinary invention to reveal its true grandeur."[67]
Babbage published the following on Ada's contribution, in his Passages from the Life of a Philosopher (1864):[68]
I then suggested that she add some notes to Menabrea's memoir, an idea which was immediately adopted. We discussed together the various illustrations that might be introduced: I suggested several but the selection was entirely her own. So also was the algebraic working out of the different problems, except, indeed, that relating to the numbers of Bernoulli, which I had offered to do to save Lady Lovelace the trouble. This she sent back to me for an amendment, having detected a grave mistake which I had made in the process.
The "algebraic working out" Babbage describes is the derivation of the mathematical equations 1 through 9 in Note G, not the Table & Diagram in Note G showing punch card flow. The table, not the equations, is considered the first computer program. In Ada's and Babbage's letters to each other in 1843, the only contemporary documentation, Ada mentions finding and correcting errors in "our first edition of a Table & Diagram" (Ada frequently used "our" when discussing the Notes in letters with Babbage).[69]

Cultural references

Ada Lovelace has been portrayed in the film Conceiving Ada, the steam punk novel The Difference Engine, by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, and Sydney Padua's webcomic 2D Goggles.[70][71] In John Crowley's novel Lord Byron's Novel: The Evening Land, Ada is featured as an unseen character whose personality is forcefully depicted in her annotations and anti-heroic efforts to archive her father's lost novel.

Named after Ada Lovelace

The computer language Ada, created on behalf of the United States Department of Defense, was named after Ada Lovelace. The reference manual for the language was approved on 10 December 1980, and the Department of Defense Military Standard for the language, "MIL-STD-1815", was given the number of the year of her birth. Since 1998, the British Computer Society has awarded amedal in her name[72] and in 2008 initiated an annual competition for women students of computer science.[73]
The village computer centre in the village of Porlock, near where Ada Lovelace lived, is named after her. There is a building in the small town of Kirkby-in-Ashfield, Nottinghamshire named "Ada Lovelace House".[74]
Now-defunct UK computer company International Computers Limited (now Fujitsu Siemens) had their main development centre at Lovelace Road in Bracknell. 51° 24' 25" N 0° 46' 28" W

Commemoration

"Ada Lovelace Day" is an annual event celebrated in mid-October[75] whose goal is to "raise the profile of women in science, technology, engineering and maths". The Ada Initiative is a non-profit organisation dedicated to increasing the involvement of women in the free culture and open source movements.[76]
In the UK, the BCSWomen Lovelace Colloquium, the annual conference for women undergraduates is named after Ada Lovelace.[77]
On the 197th anniversary of her birth, Google dedicated its Google Doodle to her.[3] The doodle shows Lovelace working on a formula along with images that show the evolution of the computer.[3]

Titles and styles by which she was known

  • 10 December 1815 – 8 July 1835: The Honourable Ada Augusta Byron
  • 8 July 1835 – 1838: The Right Honourable The Lady King
  • 1838 – 27 November 1852: The Right Honourable The Countess of Lovelace

Ancestry

Publications

See also

Portal iconComputer programming portal

Notes

  1. ^ a b J. Fuegi and J. Francis, "Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 25 No. 4 (October–December 2003): 16–26. Digital Object Identifier
  2. ^ "Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace". Archivedfrom the original on 21 July 2010. Retrieved 11 July 2010.
  3. ^ a b c "Ada Lovelace honoured by Google doodle". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 December 2012
  4. ^ Fuegi and Francis 2003 pp. 19, 25.
  5. ^ Stein, Ada, p. 14
  6. ^ a b Turney 1972 p. 35
  7. ^ a b Stein, Ada p. 17
  8. ^ Stein, Ada, p. 16
  9. ^ Woolley, Benjamin(1999): ‘’The Bride of Science: Romance, Reason and Byron’s Daughter’’; p. 80
  10. ^ Turney 1972 pp. 36–38
  11. ^ Woolley, Benjamin(1999): ‘’The Bride of Science: Romance, Reason and Byron’s Daughter’’; pp. 74–77
  12. ^ a b Turney 1972 p. 138
  13. ^ Woolley, p. 10
  14. ^ Woolley, pp. 85–87
  15. ^ Woolley, p. 86
  16. ^ Woolley, p. 119
  17. ^ Stein, Ada, pp. 28–30
  18. ^ Woolley, Benjamin (February 2002). The Bride of Science: Romance, Reason, and Byron's Daughter. ISBN 0-333-72436-4.
  19. ^ Stein, Ada, p. 82.
  20. ^ Woolley, pp. 120–121
  21. ^ Turney 1972 p. 155
  22. ^ Woolley, pp. 138–140
  23. ^ Woolley, p. 198
  24. ^ Woolley, pp. 232–233
  25. ^ Woolley, p. 305
  26. ^ Woolley, pp. 310–314
  27. ^ Woolley, pp. 315–317
  28. ^ Woolley, p. 335
  29. ^ Turney 1972 pp. 138–139
  30. ^ a b Turney 1972 p. 139
  31. ^ Ada Augusta Byron at thePeerage.com
  32. ^ Woolley, pp. 285–286
  33. ^ Woolley, pp. 289–296
  34. ^ Turney 1972 p. 159
  35. ^ Turney 1972 p. 160
  36. ^ Moore 1961 p. 431
  37. ^ Turney 1972 p. 161
  38. ^ Woolley, p. 302
  39. ^ Woolley, pp. 340–342
  40. ^ Woolley, pp. 336–337
  41. ^ Woolley, p. 361
  42. ^ Toole 1998, Acknowledgments.
  43. ^ Menabrea 1843.
  44. ^ Woolley, p. 265
  45. ^ Woolley, p. 267
  46. ^ "The Babbage Engine". Computer History Museum. 2008.
  47. ^ Gleick, J. (2011) The Information: a History, a Theory, a Flood, London, Fourth Estate, pp. 116–118
  48. ^ a b Woolley, p. 307
  49. ^ Woolley, pp. 277–280
  50. ^ GRO Register of Deaths: December 1852 1a * MARYLEBONE – Augusta Ada Lovelace
  51. ^ Baum 1986 pp. 99–100
  52. ^ Woolley, pp. 361–362
  53. ^ Woolley, p. 370
  54. ^ Woolley, p. 369
  55. ^ Fuegi; Francis (2003)
  56. ^ Simonite, Tom (24 March 2009). "Short Sharp Science: Celebrating Ada Lovelace: the 'world's first programmer'". New Scientist. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
  57. ^ Toole 1998, pp. 175–182.
  58. ^ Hooper, Rowan (16 October 2012). "Ada Lovelace: My brain is more than merely mortal". New Scientist. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
  59. ^ Toole 1998, pp. 2–3.
  60. ^ Woolley, pp. 272–277
  61. ^ Kent, Leo (17 September 2012). "The 10-year-plan to build Babbage’s Analytical Engine". Humans Invent. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
  62. ^ Bromley, Allan G. "Difference and Analytical Engines", from Computing Before Computers (ed. William Aspray). Iowa State Press, 1990
  63. ^ Swade, Doron. The Difference Engine. Penguin, 2001
  64. ^ Collier, Bruce. The Little Engines That Could've.Garland Science, 1990
  65. ^ Woolley, p. 276
  66. ^ Woolley, p. 272
  67. ^ Woolley, p. 277
  68. ^ Babbage, Charles (1864). Passages from the life of a philosopher. p. 136. ISBN 0-8135-2066-5.
  69. ^ Toole 1998, p. 198.
  70. ^ "2D Goggles or The Thrilling Adventures of Lovelace and Babbage". 2DGoggles.com. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
  71. ^ Goh, Jaymee (26 October 2009)."Experiments in Comics with Sydney Padua". Tor.com. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
  72. ^ Lovelace Lecture & Medal. BCS. Retrieved 2 March 2008.
  73. ^ Undergraduate Lovelace Colloquium, BCSWomen. Leeds. Retrieved 6 March 2008.
  74. ^ Conference Facilities. Ashfield District Council. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  75. ^ "FAQ". FindingAda. Retrieved 2012-12-10.
  76. ^ Aurora, Valerie (December 13, 2011), "An update on the Ada Initiative", LWN.net, retrieved 2012-10-05
  77. ^ "Bath to host 2012 BCSWomen Lovelace Colloquium".[dead link]

References

External links

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